The Mughal painting tradition, originating in the 16th century, marked a significant amalgamation of the indigenous with the Persian, and later the European themes and styles. This artistic journey continued until the mid-19th century, influencing a diverse range of Indian miniatures. The Mughal paintings depicted almost three dimensional figures and offered an illusion of optical reality.
The Mughal miniature paintings were made on handmade paper, using opaque natural colors. The pigments were derived from minerals such as cinnabar, lapis lazuli, orpiment, shells and charcoal. Gold and silver powder added opulence to the paintings made by squirrel or kitten hair brushes. The process of painting involved composition or tarh, portraits or chiharanama, and color application or rangamizi. Upon completion, the painting underwent burnishing with the use of Agate stone.
The Mughal miniature painting tradition can be categorized into two distinctive phases: early Mughal and later Mughal. Each phase exhibits unique characteristics, further classified under individual emperors, who played a pivotal role in shaping the trajectory of this art form.
Babur, the first Mughal ruler, held a keen interest in chronicling the diverse flora and fauna of the newly explored territories. Within the pages of his autobiography, the Baburnama, a meticulous narrative unfolds, adorned with vivid depictions of the region’s landscapes, flora and fauna. Artists such as Bihzad and Shah Muzaffar brought distinctive features to this art. Bihzad, a Persian master artist, skillfully elongated the ghab-ghab, or the double chin, while Shah Muzaffar’s prowess lay in the artful depiction of hairstyles.
The subsequent chapter in the Mughal miniature tradition unfolded during the tenure of his success, Humayun. Amidst a tumultuous political career that led to his dethronement by the Afghan Sher Shah Suri, a pivotal shift occurred. Humayun’s return from exile brought forth the talents of Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd Us Samad, esteemed artists from Persia. Establishing the Nigaar Khana, a dedicated painting workshop, Humayun initiated the illustrious illustration of the Hamza Nama, marking a transformative phase in the Mughal artistic narrative. Until his reign, the essence of Mughal miniatures reflected Persian influences in its themes, figures and color palette.
A notable transition emerged during Akbar’s reign, shifting towards indigenous traditions. The collaborative efforts of Indo-Persian artists played a pivotal role in elevating the standards of Mughal miniature artistry. During this period, the artists began illustrating a plethora of Persian as well as Indian manuscripts. This period witnessed the culmination of significant works such as the Hamza Nama, the Razm Nama ( Persian rendition of the Mahabharata), and the Ramayana. The school broadened its thematic scope, depicting political conquests, court scenes, and a rich array of secular and religious texts.
Babur inspecting Gwalior fort (illustration from Baburnama), Akbar period, circa 1598, National Museum, New Delhi
In the later part of Akbar’s reign, a noteworthy shift occurred, introducing European themes into the Mughal artistic repertoire. Iconic subjects such as Madonna and the Child, the Virgin Mary, and the themes reminiscent of the Byzantine and European classical arts were depicted, marking a creative evolution that echoed the spirit of the late 16th century.
Mughal Emperor Jahangir holding a picture of Madonna. Jahangir period, circa 1620, National Museum, New Delhi
Jahangir’s reign saw Mughal miniature paintings reach their zenith. This era witnessed a refinement of artistic expression, marked by an exquisite delicacy and intricate detailing that became emblematic of the period. Aqa Riza, a renowned Iranian painter, lent his expertise to the royal atelier, leaving an indelible mark on the artistic landscape, along with other notable artists of Jahangir’s reign, such as Abul Hasan and Manohar.
During this period, the grandeur of Mughal miniatures extended to the borders of the manuscripts, adorned with gold accents, flora and fauna. Themes of courtly scenes, royalty, aristocracy, and flora-fauna dominated the artistic narrative. Notably, there was an increase in the depiction of European themes, reflecting a broader cultural exchange.
Shah Jahan inherited a politically steadfast empire, complete with the epitome of artistic craftsmanship in his atelier. The artistic ethos of this era favoured idealisation and stylisation over naturalistic portrayal. Imbued with subliminal qualities, the paintings depicted a regal aura with jewel-like colors and meticulously rendered intricate lines. The artistic inclination during his reign was towards imperial portraits.
Lady holding a sparkler, Shahjahan period, circa 1660, National Museum, New Delhi
During Aurangzeb’s reign, there was a noticeable decline in the artistic endeavors, yet they persisted at a restrained pace. Subsequent rulers, such as Muhammad Shah Rangila, Shah Alam II, and Bahadur Shah Zafar oversaw the creation of various paintings, ensuring a slow paced continuation of the Mughal miniature tradition. The legacy of Mughal miniatures, characterized by its emphasis on naturalism, were subsequently incorporated into the tradition of company paintings.
Empress Nurjahan. Muhammad Shah period, circa 1740-1750, National Museum, New Delhi
References
- Beach, Milo Cleveland. Mughal and Rajput Painting. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
- Chandra, Moti. The Technique of Mughal Painting. Lucknow, 1949.
- Hawley, John Stratton. "Krishna’s Cosmic Victories." Journal of the American Academy of Religion 47, no. 2 (June 1979), pp. 206–7.
- Koch, Ebba Mughal. Art and Imperial Ideology: Collected Essays. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001.
- Kossak, Steven. Indian Court Painting. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1997.
- Kramrisch, Stella. Painted Delight. Philadelphia: Philadelphia Museum of Art 1986,
- Losty, J.P. A Prince’s Eye: Imperial Mughal Paintings from a Princely Collection Art from the Indian Courts.London: Francesco Galloway, 2013.
- Okada, Amina. Imperial Mughal Painters: Indian Miniatures from the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. Paris: Flammarion, 1992.
