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From ancient times, India has been known as a land of rich textile traditions. The earliest material evidence of weaving in India dates back to 3000 B.C. during the Indus Valley civilisation. Sewing needles were found in the Harappan sites. India was renowned for its soft cotton and exquisite muslin robes embellished with gold and silver threads. Megasthenes, an ancient Greek historian who visited the court of Chandragupta Maurya in the 3rd century B.C., had observed the embroidered robes Indians wore.
In medieval India, textile traditions such as painting, weaving, and embroidery gained prominence, especially under the patronage of the Mughal rulers. Even in modern times, Indian artisans and textile designers embrace ancient textile traditions. Textile traditions are not just used to make clothes, but they have also branched out into decorative and utilitarian items like wall hangings, handbags, purses, and shoes.
In this article, let’s explore some of the major textile traditions of India, their history, and their major motifs.
Phulkari
Phulkari is an embroidery tradition predominantly practised in Punjab. The word ‘Phulkari’ originates from two Punjabi words, ‘Phul’ and ‘Kari,’ which means flower and work, respectively. Phulkari translates to "flower work," which accurately represents this exquisite embroidery tradition. Phulkari embroidery is practised by women.
Vibrant Tapestry in Phulkari by Harjeet kaur
Heavily worked Phulkari textile is a part of the bride’s trousseau in Punjab. Traditionally, the bride herself or her close female relatives do the Phulkari work on the wedding dress, especially on the Chaddar or the veil that the bride wears.
History of Phulkari Embroidery
While there is no clear evidence about the time period when Phulkari originated, one of the earliest references to this embroidery is found in the 15th-century teachings of The founder of Sikhism, Guru Nanak Dev (A.D. 1469–1538). However, it’s clear that Phulkari embroidery was a part of Punjab’s artisan culture much before that.
Woman Churning Milk in Phulkari by Harjeet Kaur
Some scholars believe that Phulkari came to Punjab through the Jat tribes who migrated from Central Asia. Another theory suggests that Phulkari originated in Iran and arrived in India during the period of invasions. The similarity of the Gulkari embroidery of Iran to Phulkari suggests that this theory might be true.
From the Punjabi literature and religious texts, it’s clear that Phulkari has been a crucial part of Punjab’s textile culture for hundreds of years. It’s referred to in the classic Punjabi folk story "Heer Ranjha", which has many poetic narrations, including those written by Damodar Gulati in the 1600s and Waris Shah in 1766.
Silk threads are used in Phulkari embroidery, and bright colours like yellow, red, white, orange, violet and green are used in the Phulkari works.
Motifs of Phulkari Embroidery
Even though Phulkari means ‘flower work,’ it’s not just flowers that feature in Phulkari embroidery. Since it is often done by women, many objects from their daily lives feature motifs in Phulkari embroidery.
Vibrant Tapestry in Phulkari by Harjeet kaur
Phulkari features flower motifs, such as marigolds and sunflowers (Gendabhag and Surajmukhibhag), as well as repeating geometric patterns, including diamonds. In addition, vegetable designs like bitter gourd, cauliflower, and chilli are popular motifs in Phulkari; they’re known as Karelabhag, Gobi Bhag, and Mirchi Bhag, respectively. These motifs also feature in Phulkari embroidery. Animals and birds, such as parrots, elephants, peacocks, goats, and cows, are also featured in some designs.
Additionally, ornaments such as necklaces, chokers, bangles, and earrings also feature in Phulkari embroidery.
Kantha
Kantha is an embroidery technique practised mostly by women in West Bengal and Bangladesh. Initially, Kantha embroidery originated as a simple technique for repurposing old saris and other fabrics by stitching them together to create quilts. These Kantha-stitched quilts were used in the winters and during the heavy monsoons of Bengal and and present-day Bangladesh. The name Kantha derives from the Sanskrit word Kontha, and it means ‘rags.’ This itself shows the humble origin of this textile tradition.
Bird in Kantha Embroidery by She Kantha
Later, Kantha embroidery became more sophisticated and complex, and today, Kantha is a rich embroidery work that adorns not just saris and quilts but also many decorative items, such as cushion covers, purses, and wall hangings.
The characteristic stitch of Kantha is the running stitch. Rural women stitched fabric without using an embroidery frame, and hence, the Kantha stitches have a character ripple effect.
History of Kantha Embroidery
The simple running stitch, the basis of Kantha embroidery, was practised in India several millennia ago, primarily during the pre-Vedic period. The ancient folklore and literature of Bengal contain numerous references dating back to the 12th century. Poet Mohammad Sayeddur describes how the 12th-century king Gopichandra accepted a Kantha quilt when he renounced the world to become an ascetic.
The Blossoming Vine In Kantha by Mahamaya Sikdar
Kantha is also mentioned in the 16th-century Bengali poem Chaitanya Charitamrita by the poet Krishnadasa Kaviraja. Baul song lyrics often refer to Kantha both literally and figuratively. Kantha also had great demand among Europeans in the colonial era. Portuguese writer Duarte Barbosa had written about Kantha back in A.D. 1516. Likewise, a Portuguese missionary, Sebastian Mantique, also mentions Kantha in his 1629 writing.
Motifs of Kantha Embroidery
Kantha embroidery is a simple yet elegant technique that uses a wide set of motifs. Since Kantha is primarily done by women, objects they come across in their daily lives have become a significant part of their embroidery.
The Village Life In Kantha by Mahamaya Sikdar
One of the most important motifs of Kantha is the lotus. Kantha embroidery features different styles of lotus, for example, Sata-dal Padma, the 100-petalled lotus, and Sahashradal-padma or the 1000-petalled lotus. A lot of Kantha embroidery works have either of these as the central motif. Kalkas, or paisleys, are also recurring motifs in Kantha embroidery. Another important motif is the tree of life. Natural elements like birds, animals, fishes, flowers and leaves are also part of Kantha motifs. Humans and Gods also occasionally make appearances in the Kantha embroidery.
Geometric Symphony in Kantha by Mahamaya Sikdar
Since Kantha is practised by women, many household objects like mirrors, betel cutters, fish cutters, winnowing fans, and tongs are also part of the Kantha embroidery.
Zardozi
Zardozi is an embroidery technique that uses metal threads. It’s practised mainly in Lucknow, India. Gold, silver, and copper threads are used in the Zardozi work. Artisans intersperse metallic threads with beads, sequins, pearls and semi-precious stones to create beautiful, intrinsic patterns. Zardozi embroidery is often done on delicate fabrics like silk, velvet, organza or satin.
Peacock in Zardozi by Md. Bilal
Origin of Zardozi Embroidery
The name Zardozi originates from two words. ‘Zar’ means gold and ‘Dosi’ means embroidery. Embroidering with golden treads was practised in ancient India. Indian epics mention kings and queens wearing clothes embroidered with golden threads.
However, Zardozi embroidery came to India from Persia, maybe around the time of the Tughlaq dynasty in the 14th to 15th century C.E. Soon, it became popular among the royals who flaunted clothes in the rich Zardozi embroidery embellished with pearls, beads and precious stones. It also reached the Vijayanagara Empire. However, Zardozi embroidery reached its zenith during the Mughal Era. Emperors like Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan were patrons of Zardozi work.
Kalpavriksha Tree In Zardozi by Md. Bilal
Zardozi embroidery reached Lucknow when the artisans from Delhi migrated to Lucknow. The Nawabs of Lucknow provided patronage to this grand embroidery work, and henceforth, Zardozi embroidery thrived in this region.
Motifs of Zardozi Embroidery
Many Zardozi motifs are inspired by Persian designs like paisleys. Zardozi designs use many floral motifs like roses and lilies. Intricate leaf patterns also accompany the floral designs. Intricate geometric patterns interspersed with beads and stones are also an important motif of Zardozi embroidery.
Mughal Inspired Floral Zardozi by Mohd. Bilal
Mango is also a recurring motif. In India, there are different styles of Zardozi work. The Lucknow and Delhi styles are often heavy with beads, stones and intricate patterns. Hyderabad and Agra Zardozi styles are characterised by minimalist designs with simple and large patterns.
Chikankari
Chikankari is another intricate embroidery pattern that’s predominantly practised in Lucknow in the state of Uttar Pradesh. The word originated from two Persian words. In Persian, Chikan means intricate embroidery, and Kari means work. As the name rightly suggests, Chikankari features fine needlework. There are three main types of needlework used in Chikankari - flat stitches, embossed stitches and Jaali stitches. The Jaali stitches give Chikankari an intricate netlike appearance.
Origin of Chikankari
Ancient India was famous for its fine muslin clothes adorned with intricate needlework. Reference to Indian floral designs can be found in the records of Magasthenese, a Greek historian who travelled to India in the 3rd century B.C.
Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain
One of the most famous patrons of Chikankari embroidery was Queen Nur Jahan, the wife of Mughal Emperor Jahangir. She popularised the white-on-white Chikankari embroidery. It’s said that she embroidered a white cap with white Chikankari work for Jahangir, popularising this intricate embroidery. Another important patron of Chikankari work was the Nawabs of Lucknow. Even though Chikankari work started as a white-on-white embroidery, artisans gradually began using coloured threads and background fabrics.
Motifs of Chikankari
Like many other traditional Indian embroidery techniques, Chikankari embroidery also draws inspiration from natural elements, flora and fauna. Flowers, flower stems, creepers and leaves are used for creating intricate Jaal and Bhuti patterns (the lace-like underlying pattern and accompanying decorative motifs.)
Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain
Birds are also a significant motif in Chikankari embroidery. Peacocks and parrots are two popular motifs that recur in this embroidery. Also, mango and badam, along with Persian Paisley designs, are also important Chikankari motifs. Modern artisans are also reinventing and incorporating more intricate and contemporary designs into the Chikankari work. The ancient, delicate needle of India remains the favourite among the top designers across the globe.
Bandhani
Bandhani is a textile design technique primarily practised in the Indian states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Uttar Pradesh. This is an ancient tie-and-dye technique, where the cloth is plucked with fingers, tied into tiny bundles and then dipped in various dyes. The name Bandhani derives from this very technique, for the word bhanda in Sanskrit means ‘to tie.’ Bandhani is also known as Bhandej.
RubyGoes - Wikimedia Commons CC BY 2.0
Origin of the Bandhani Technique
Tie-and-dye is an ancient textile technique that was practised in many countries, including India, China, Thailand, Japan, Indonesia and Thailand. In different countries, the technique originated at different times. In India, the earliest evidence of tie-and-dye textiles can be found in the paintings of the 6th century B.C. in Ajanta Caves. In these paintings, various dancers and courtiers are depicted wearing Bhandani-style clothes.
Jon Connell, Cambridge, UK
In modern times, the tradition of Bandhani goes back to the 12th century A.D., when the Khatri community migrated to Kutch, Gujarat, from Sindh. Artisans of the Khatri community popularised the Bandhani technique. In the following centuries, India exported Bandhani work fabrics across the world, especially during the colonial era. Even after millennia, Bandhani remains one of India's favourite textile traditions, and many modern-day designers incorporate this tradition into their designs.
Motifs of the Bandhani Technique
Since Bandhani uses a very specific tie-and-dye technique, the motifs are also influenced by this technique. The most common motifs in Bandhani are geometrical shapes that naturally occur due to the ties. These include squares, circles, rectangles, and diamonds. These are placed horizontally, vertically, or in a zig-zag pattern on a fabric.
Dr. Matias Langer CC BY-SA 3.0
However, more complex motifs can also be made using the Bandhani technique. For that, the design is first printed on paper, pricked with a needle and then transferred onto a fabric through dyeing. Animal and bird motifs like peacocks, elephants, and parrots are printed like this. Also complex images like floral motifs and dancing girls are also found in Bandhani designs.
Ikat
Ikat uses a combination of dyeing and weaving techniques to create unique textile patterns. Ikat is mainly practised in Pochampally in Telangana, Sambalpur in Odisha and Patan in Gujarat. Ikat is based on a specific resist-dyeing technique where the dye is blocked from certain parts of the fabric. The yarns are dyed using the resist dyeing technique before weaving, and when woven, the light and dark parts of the yarn create a unique pattern.
Handwoven IKAT SILK STOLE, multicoloured grey
Origin of Ikat Technique
Researchers believe that the Ikat technique originated in Malaya. The word Ikat means tying around or binding. The word originated from the Malay-Indonesian word Mengikat. The Ikat tradition originated in Malaya and was introduced to India through the ocean trade routes. The technique is believed to be older than 5000 years. To substantiate this, the ancient murals of Ajanta caves from the 6th century B.C. feature fabrics in the Ikat tradition.
Handwoven IKAT SILK STOLE
Motifs of Ikat Technique
Ikat weaving in India has many recurring elements or motifs that are rooted in Indian religions and culture. For example, the rudraksha motif symbolises the seed of the rudraksha tree, a sacred artefact in the Hindu religion. Lotus is another important motif in the Ikat tradition that symbolises prosperity.
Other popular Ikat motifs are plants and animals like elephants and peacocks. Geometric shapes like squares and rectangles are also part of the Ikat tradition. The Ikat technique often results in a flame-like hazy effect on the geometric patterns.
Handwoven IKAT SILK STOLE, Blue
Applique
Applique is a textile embellishment tradition that’s popular all over the world. It’s a technique where pieces of fabric are sewn onto a base fabric to create unique designs and patterns. The name applique comes from the French words appliquer and applicare, which means ‘to attach.’
In India, the major centres of applique work are Pipli in Odisha and Gujarat. The applique work of Pipli is characterised by vibrant banners used in the famous Rath Yatra (Chariot festival). The Pipli style of applique is known as the "Chandua" style. In Gujarat, the applique work is known as Katab Appliqué. In Bihar, the Khatwa style of applique is a traditional textile art.
Deers in Applique by Purna Chandra Ghosh
Origin of Applique Technique
Applique has been practised by people across the world since ancient times. Historians have found appliqued leather during excavations in Egypt, and they date back to 980 B.C. In Siberia and Mongolia, applique works on leather and felt were found, which dates back to the 4th century B.C. In India, the exact time period when the applique work started is not very clear, but researchers suggest that this technique had been practised in India as early as the 12th century A.D. It may have started as a simple technique to repair torn clothes and evolved into an intricate art.
Sumrasar In Applique by Kala Raksha
Motifs of Applique Technique
The main motifs of Indian applique work like Chandua are flora, fauna and mythological figures. The most common motifs are elephants, peacocks, parrots, ducks, flowers, creepers and trees.
Sun, moon and Rahu are also commonly used motifs in Pipli applique. Often, a limited number of colours like green, blue, red, black and ochre are used in the traditional applique work that is used for temple festivities.
Tribal Harmony in Applique by Purna Chandra Ghosh
In addition to clothing items and banners, applique work is also used in creating colourful umbrellas and decorating items like lampshades and wall hangings. They are also used to decorate everyday items like handbags, pillow covers, and letter pouches.
Conclusion
Ancient India was the cradle of rich and diverse textile traditions. While some of these traditions originated in India, some have come to India through various invasions. Indian artisans still practice the process of weaving and embroidery that has been practised for thousands of years. India’s textile traditions, like Phulkari, Kantha, Chikenkari, Bandani, Ikat and Applique, are used by designers worldwide. In India, these textile techniques offer a sustainable income for artisans and also contribute a significant amount to the Indian economy.
References:
- Patterns Of Phulkari: Past And Present: Payal Ratan, Sukhvir Kaur
- https://textilelearner.net/phulkari-embroidery-origin-types-and-techniques/
- Historical review of Zardozi - ResearchGate
- Chikankari- the white embroidery Pallavi Prajapati, Prof. Dr. Shruti Tiwari, Renaissance University, Indore, India
- A Review on Journey of Chikanikari Embroidery in Present Scenario by Mrs. Navpreet Kaur, Assistant Professor, Kanya Maha Vidyalaya, Jalandhar, Maharashtra
- Chikankari- the white embroidery Pallavi Prajapati, Prof. Dr. Shruti Tiwari
- Bandhani: A Tale Ties in Colors Pratyunsha Dongre, Anoushka Bhatia Umer Hameed, University of Liverpool
- The Art of Kantha Embroidery by Niaz Zaman
- An Insight Into the Ikat Technology in India: Ancient To
- Modern Era Sudarsan Behera, Asimananda Khandual & Yan Luximon
