Table of Contents
Introduction
The Vishnudharmottara Purana offers one of the earliest and most detailed frameworks for understanding painting in the Indian tradition, where art is not merely decorative but deeply rooted in observation, meaning and lived experience. Among its many insights, the text pays particular attention to the depiction of human figures and the natural world, emphasising that both must be rendered with sensitivity to context, proportion and essence.
Human beings, it suggests, are not abstract forms but individuals shaped by their region, occupation, attire and social identity, while nature is not a passive backdrop but an active participant, imbued with symbolism, movement and life. From the bend of a figure to the flow of a river, from the posture of a dancer to the clustering of trees in a forest, every element is guided by an underlying visual logic.
What makes this framework particularly compelling is how strongly it resonates with contemporary Indian art. Across folk, tribal and classical traditions, artists continue to depict people and landscapes not as isolated subjects but as interconnected expressions of culture, environment, and emotion. This article explores how these classical ideas continue to find form in living practices today.
Depiction of human figures
According to the text, “The chief aim of a painting is to produce an exact likeness. Men should be painted according to their country; their colour, dress and (general) appearance should be well observed. Having carefully ascertained the country, employment and place (of occupation) and the work (a man is engaged in), seat, bed, conveyance and dress should be drawn correspondingly.”
Different Indian painting traditions visually encode where a person belongs through dress, body type and environment. In Pahari (Kangra) miniatures, figures are shown in soft-featured forms, dressed in flowing garments suited to the Himalayan climate, often set against lush, hilly landscapes.
The Season of Waiting In Kangra by Poonam Katoch
In Rajasthani miniatures, men wear elaborate turbans, jewellery and angarkhas, immediately signalling desert aristocracy and courtly life.
Jodhpuri Pair : Miniature Painting By Rajendra Sharma
Jodhpuri Pair : Miniature Painting By Rajendra Sharma
Babu and Bibi in Kalighat by Uttam Chitrakar
The text’s insistence on depicting occupation and activity is clearly visible across traditions -
For example, Warli paintings depict farming, hunting, dancing, capturing the rhythm of community life rather than individual portraiture.
Harmony in Fishing Warli Painting by Dilip Rama Bahotha
A Talented Artist In Kalighat by Hasir Chitrakar
The text also stresses drawing “seat, bed, conveyance and dress” appropriately, meaning context matters as much as the figure.
In court scenes, emperors sit on richly decorated thrones, surrounded by carpets, canopies and attendants, visual markers of power.
Paper Mache Royal Court Box by Riyaz
In Ragamala paintings, a nayika might be shown waiting on a terrace or seated on a bed, the setting reinforcing her emotional state.
Kalahantrita Nayika Bheda in Kangra Miniature by Anshu Mohan
To know more about the depiction of various nayikas in Indian art, give this blog a read
Domestic interiors, textiles and objects in paintings often indicate class, gender roles and social hierarchy.
The figures may appear in various positions, of which nine are the leading attitudes -
pattavvāgata - the front view
Depiction of goddess Lakshmi: Madhubani by Vibhuti Nath
anrju - the back view
A Woman At Door in Kalamkari by K. Lakshminarayanan
sachikrtasarira -a bent position in profile view
Radiance of a Woman: Kalighat Art by Bapi Chitrakar
ardhavilochana -the face in profile, the body in three-quarter profile view. For example, Krishna playing the flute in the below Madhubani painting.
Lord Krishna with his flute and a lady feeding a cow in Madhubani by Vibhuti Nath
pārśvāgata-the side view proper
Sacred union of Radha and Krishna In Mughal Miniature by Mohan Prajapati
Other positions include - parāvṛtta - with head and shoulder-belt turned backwards, prshthāgata- back view with upper part of the body partly visible in forlorn profile, parivritta - with the body sharpıy turned back from the waist upwards and lastly, samānata- the back view, in squatting position with body bent.
For the depiction of women, the following rules can be seen - Each woman should be placed near her and should be made to reach the shoulders of the man (on her side) in proportion.The waist of a woman should be made 2 angulas thinner than that of a man. The hip should be made wider, (by adding) 4 angulas. The breasts should be made charming and proportionate to the measurement of the chest.
Village Romance: Couple in Madhubani by Priti Karn
Royal Couple in Usta Miniature by Pankaj Kumar
(The different) classes of hair are the following
Kuntala - (loose) hair
Studying women In Kalighat by Uttam Chitrakar
Dakşinavarta, curled towards the right and Taranga (wavy)
Two Women in modern attire In Kalighat by Anwar Chitrakar
Simhakeśara (mane-like)
Divine mother in Terracotta by Dolon Kundu
Vardhara (parted)
A Woman Twirling her hair: Kalighat painting by Uttam Chitrakar
Jațatasara (matted)
The watchful wanderer in Cheriyal Mask Print
The different types of eyes shown in paintings are mentioned as follows -
An eye shaped like a bow, generally of a woman, assumes the shape of a bow when looking at the ground in meditation.
The Two Sides: Traditional Woman in Kalighat by Sonali Chitrakar
Lovers in Mahdhubani by Izhar Ansari
Eyes in the shape of a petal of the blue lotus (utpala) are said to be of the ever calm, while the ones like the white lotus (padma) are that of one who is frightened and crying.
Lord Buddha under peepal leaves in Tikuli painting by Ashok Kumar
The gentle Giant in Cheriyal Mask Print
Sages, ancestors and gods should be made glowing and with ornaments consistent with their own colour and outshining all other figures.
The Divine Family: Lord Shiva's Blessings , Antique Tanjore
The face should be beautiful all over, marked with all the auspicious marks. Gods should have hair on their eye-lashes and eye-brows only; their body should be entirely devoid of hair. Those who live in heaven have always smiling faces and eves and look like youths of the age of sixteen auspicious strings, crowns, earrings. They should be drawn wearing garlands and ornamented by necklaces, bracelets, ornaments of the upper arm, long girdles reaching up to the ornaments on the feet, and sacred threads with ornaments for the head. Their shoulders should be broad. They should be represented with beautiful loin-cloth on the left, reaching below the knee; the right knee should be shown. The linen scarf which the gods wear round the upper part of their body should also be executed beautifully. The halo should be drawn round their heads, proportionate to the measurement of the head and the colour of the halo-circle should resemble the colour of the deity.
Ganesha: The elephant headed God in Pattachitra by Gitanjali Das
Good archers and bowmen should have bare legs. Their dress should not be very short and they should wear shoes.
Ravana Badh in Manuscript Painting by Sujit Das
Elephant-riders should have a swarthy complexion, their hair should be tied in a knot, they should wear ornaments as well.
Baba Ganeh's Galloping Ride in Pithora Art by Chanchal Soni
The doorkeeper is known by the sword hanging by his side. He holds a staff in his hand, does not look very mild and his dress is not too conspicuous.
Royal Show in Assamese by Mridu Moucham Bora
Musicians, dancers and those who can correctly regulate the sound of musical instruments should wear a gorgeous dress.
Musical Fusion Dancers and Instruments - Pattachitra Plate by Apindra Swain for Home Decor
Depictions of nature
According to the text, “Bulls, lions and other animals should be represented in appropriate surroundings as they are seen in nature”, as depicted in the below paintings.
Bulls under Kadam Tree, Sanjhi Artwork By Ashutosh Verma
Prey and Predator in Bhil by Kamlesh Parmar
“Rivers should be represented in human form, with their conveyances (vāhanas). Their knees should be bent and their hands should hold full pitchers. ” This can be seen in the below depictions of the river goddess Ganga, with her vahana, makara, bent at the knees and holding a pitcher.
Mystical Grace: Flowing Majesty Goddess Ganga, Kalighat style by Hasir Chitrakar
Ganga Mata, Kerala Mural Painting by V.M Jijulal
The sky should be shown without any special colour and full of birds. Similarly (the artist) should show the firmament adorned by stars and the earth with its vegetation in all its variety.
Teen Lok in Gond by Braj Bhooshan Dhurwey
An artist should show a mountain by a cluster of rocks, peaks, metal(-vein) trees, waterfalls and snakes. A learned artist should show a forest by various sorts of trees, birds and beasts. He should show water by innumerable fishes and tortoises, by lotuses and other aquatic animals and plants.
The Living World in Mata ni Pachedi by Vasant Manubhai Chitara
A learned artist should show a city by beautiful temples, palaces, shops, houses and lovely royal roads. An artist should show a village by its boundaries containing sparingly gardens.
The Eternal Devotion: Banaras Ghat in Acrylic by Ashish Kumar Mishra
Fortresses should be shown with battlements, ramparts, high mounts and entrances in their enclosures. Markets should be shown containing articles of merchandise; drinking places should be represented full of men engaged in drinking, and those engaged in gambling should be drawn devoid of upper garments, the winners merry and the losers full of grief.
The Smile of Mumbai: A Visual Narrative in Madhubani by Avinash Karn
The battlefield has to be shown as containing four divisions of the army (i.e., elephant corps, cavalry, chariot corps and infantry, with soldiers engaged in fighting, strewn with corpses and besmeared with blood.
Kanchi Bijay - Pattachitra Painting by Gitanjali Das for Home Decor
